problem-structuring

The chapter critiques traditional operational research (OR) methods for their limitations in addressing complex, strategic problems characterized by uncertainty, ill-defined parameters, and shifting objectives. It highlights a paradigm crisis in OR, contrasting its success in tactical, well-structured problems with its failure in strategic contexts, and introduces new problem structuring methods that emphasize partial structuring and stakeholder participation to better manage complexity and conflict in decision-making.

The chapter explores the use of hypergame models to represent complex interactive decision-making processes involving multiple actors and arenas, emphasizing the importance of capturing differing perceptions and reflexive links. It advocates a mixed-scanning, iterative, and piecemeal modeling approach that balances complexity with tractability, relying heavily on clients' tacit knowledge and collaborative problem structuring methods such as cognitive mapping. The integration of hypergames with other decision-making frameworks and the iterative refinement of models through client-analyst collaboration are highlighted as key strategies for managing uncertainty, preferences, and strategic complexity.